Table of contents
Open Table of contents
- Who this cheat sheet is for
- How to use this cheat sheet
- Top 30 keigo verbs — frequency-ranked
- Scenario quick-reference — 10 situations × A/B/C
- 20 set phrases and cushion words — the daily rotation
- Honorific prefixes お and ご — quick rules
- 4 keigo mistakes non-natives make most
- Want the why behind these forms?
- Frequently asked questions
- What if a verb isn’t in the table — how do I conjugate it?
- Why is the C column split into honorific (sonkeigo) and humble (kenjougo)?
- When should I use the C-level scenario phrases?
- Do I need to memorize all the お / ご exceptions?
- Which cushion phrase (kusshion-kotoba) should I learn first?
- How do I close a polite Japanese email?
- Is this cheat sheet enough on its own? How is it different from the keigo guide?
Who this cheat sheet is for
- Expats working in Japanese companies who freeze mid-email on “what’s the keigo form of this verb?”
- JLPT N3–N1 learners who know keigo in theory but want a desk reference for real workplace use
- Anyone who’s already read the keigo guide and wants the lookup tables only
If you haven’t read the guide yet, skim it first — this cheat sheet assumes you understand the A/B/C framework already.
How to use this cheat sheet
At Real-World Japanese, we teach keigo as three rephrasings of the same intent: A (casual), B (neutral-polite), and C (formal). Every row in this cheat sheet is labelled so you can see at a glance which level fits.
| Level | Politeness | Use with | Feel |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | Casual | Peers, close juniors, family | Frank, often dropping です/ます |
| B | Neutral-polite | Bosses, other departments, first-time coworkers | Polite but not stiff |
| C | Formal | Clients, executives, apologies, official writing | Maximum deference, formal |
When in doubt, pick B. B is the safe default for ~80% of workplace situations. C to a peer creates strange distance; A to your boss is a non-starter.
Uchi (inside) and soto (outside)
A second axis sits underneath A/B/C: is this person uchi (inside your group) or soto (outside)? The rough rule: B inside, C outside. The same person can flip between uchi and soto depending on context — your boss is soto in the office (lean toward C), but becomes uchi when you talk about them to a client (lean toward humble kenjougo). The full explanation lives in the keigo guide.
Why the C column is split
C has two sub-modes: sonkeigo (elevates the other person’s action) and kenjougo (lowers your own). For “go,” that’s irassharu if the boss is going, ukagau / mairu if you are. Ask “who’s the subject?” before you pick a column.
Pick the level in 3 questions
Before you open any of the lookup tables below, answer three questions about who you’re writing or speaking to. The answer pins down A/B/C without you having to think about it.
- Are they outside your company? Yes → C. Stop here. Clients, vendors you don’t know, executives at other firms, anyone copied in from an external domain.
- Are they senior to you inside your company? Yes → B in chat or routine email, C in formal writing (announcements, apologies, anything HR-adjacent). Stop.
- Are they a peer or junior on your team? A in casual chat with people you’ve known a while; B in any written message they might forward.
When step 1 is ambiguous — a vendor you’ve worked with for years, a parent-company colleague you’ve never met, a contractor inside your office — default to C until they explicitly drop the register. They will, if and when it’s appropriate.
Top 30 keigo verbs — frequency-ranked
The 30 verbs you’ll need most often at work, ordered by rough workplace frequency. A and B follow the same pattern across almost all verbs (dictionary form → ます form), so the columns worth scanning are C-Sonkeigo, C-Kenjougo, and the mistake column.
| Dictionary | A (casual) | B (polite) | C — Sonkeigo (other) | C — Kenjougo (self) | Common mistake |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| suru (do) | suru | shimasu | nasaru | itasu | Using nasaru for your own action — accidentally elevates yourself |
| iu (say) | iu | iimasu | ossharu | mousu / moushiageru | ”mousareru” toward a superior — mixes humble + honorific in one verb |
| kiku (ask) | kiku | kikimasu | o-kiki ni naru | ukagau | ”o-ukagai sasete itadaku” stacks too many honorifics |
| kakunin suru (confirm) | kakunin suru | kakunin shimasu | go-kakunin kudasaru | kakunin itashimasu | ”go-kakunin itashimasu” for your own action — drop “go-” when you’re the subject |
| renraku suru (contact) | renraku suru | renraku shimasu | go-renraku kudasaru | go-renraku itashimasu | ”go-renraku nasaimasu” for your own action — nasaru is for the other person only |
| omou (think) | omou | omoimasu | o-omoi ni naru (rare) | zonjiru / zonjimasu | ”zonjite imasu” instead of “zonjite orimasu” — the second is the proper humble form |
| shitte iru (know) | shitteru | shitte imasu | gozonji desu | zonjite orimasu | ”gozonji nai” toward a superior can sound pointed; soften with “o-kiki de nai” or similar |
| wakaru (understand) | wakaru | wakarimasu | go-rikai kudasaru / go-rikai itadaku | shōchi itashimasu / kashikomarimasu | ”ryōkai shimashita” with external contacts (only safe inside your team). “o-wakari ni naru” is grammatical but can feel slightly condescending |
| iku (go) | iku | ikimasu | irassharu | ukagau / mairu | Using “irassharu” for your own action — that’s reserved for the other person |
| kuru (come) | kuru | kimasu | irassharu / okoshi ni naru | mairu | Mixing “korareru” and “irassharu” inconsistently when talking about a superior |
| iru (be / exist) | iru | imasu | irassharu | oru | ”shachō wa oraremasu ka”: in West Japan some speakers use oru as honorific, but in standard business “irasshaimasu ka” is safer |
| miru (see) | miru | mimasu | goran ni naru | haiken suru | Using “goran ni narimashita” for your own viewing — that’s the other person’s action |
| yomu (read) | yomu | yomimasu | o-yomi ni naru | haidoku suru | ”haiken kudasai” doesn’t work — haiken is humble, so it can’t be aimed at the listener |
| okuru (send) | okuru | okurimasu | o-okuri kudasaru | o-okuri suru / o-okuri itashimasu | ”o-okuri sasete itadakimasu” — unnecessary sasete itadaku. Plain “o-okuri shimasu” works |
| morau (receive) | morau | moraimasu | (avoid; use o-uketori ni naru) | itadaku / chōdai suru | ”itadakareru” — mixes humble verb with honorific suffix |
| ageru (give) | ageru | agemasu | (avoid) | sashiageru | Telling your boss “shiryō o agemasu” — say “sashiagemasu” instead |
| matsu (wait) | matsu | machimasu | o-machi kudasaru | o-machi suru / o-machi itashimasu | Confusing “o-matase shite orimasu” (still keeping you waiting) with “o-matase itashimashita” (the wait is over) |
| au (meet) | au | aimasu | o-ai ni naru | o-me ni kakaru | ”o-ai sasete itadaku” is overdone — “o-me ni kakaru” or “o-ai shimasu” is enough |
| tsutaeru (relay) | tsutaeru | tsutaemasu | o-tsutae kudasaru | mōshitsutaeru / o-tsutae suru | When relaying your boss’s message to an external party, use “mōshitsutaemasu” — “o-tsutae shimasu” puts your boss in the soto position |
| oshieru (teach / inform) | oshieru | oshiemasu | go-kyōji kudasaru / go-shidō kudasaru | o-oshie suru / go-setsumei suru / go-annai suru | ”go-kyōji itashimasu” for your own action sounds stiff. go-kyōji is what you ask of others; for yourself, “go-setsumei itashimasu” or “go-annai itashimasu” is natural |
| setsumei suru (explain) | setsumei suru | setsumei shimasu | go-setsumei kudasaru | go-setsumei suru / go-setsumei itashimasu | Overusing “go-setsumei sasete itadakimasu” — “go-setsumei itashimasu” is plenty |
| kotaeru (answer) | kotaeru | kotaemasu | o-kotae kudasaru | o-kotae suru / o-kotae itashimasu | ”go-kaitō sasete itadakimasu” piles on too many honorifics; “o-kotae itashimasu” works |
| taberu (eat) | taberu | tabemasu | meshiagaru | itadaku | ”o-meshiagari kudasai” technically stacks honorifics, but it’s so idiomatic in service contexts that it’s safe in practice |
| nomu (drink) | nomu | nomimasu | meshiagaru | itadaku | Same as taberu above |
| kaeru (go home) | kaeru | kaerimasu | o-kaeri ni naru | shitsurei suru / o-itoma suru | ”o-saki ni shitsurei itashimasu” works inside your office; with external contacts, drop o-saki ni and use “shitsurei itashimasu” |
| seki o hazusu (step away) | chotto nukeru | seki o hazushimasu | seki o hazushite irassharu | seki o hazushite orimasu | At a client site, “hazushite imasu” is too casual (use “hazushite orimasu”). “hazusasete itadakimasu” is only for asking permission to step out, not for explaining absence |
| watasu (hand over) | watasu | watashimasu | o-watashi kudasaru | o-watashi suru / o-watashi itashimasu | ”go-nōhin sasete itadaku” overuses sasete itadaku. Plain “o-watashi shimasu” or “o-todoke shimasu” is enough |
| kentō suru (consider) | kentō suru | kentō shimasu | go-kentō kudasaru | kentō itashimasu / kentō sasete itadakimasu | Using “kentō sasete itadakimasu” as a default reply often reads as a polite stall or soft “no” |
| teishutsu suru (submit) | teishutsu suru | teishutsu shimasu | go-teishutsu kudasaru | teishutsu itashimasu | ”go-teishutsu sasete itadakimasu” stacks unnecessary honorifics. Note: “o-osame suru” is for delivering goods or finished work, not for submitting documents |
| tanomu (request) | tanomu | tanomimasu | go-irai kudasaru | o-negai mōshiageru / o-negai itashimasu | ”o-negai sasete itadakimasu” is unnecessary — “o-negai itashimasu” works |
The core rule: other person’s action → C-Sonkeigo. Your own action → C-Kenjougo. Same C level, different column. Ask “who’s the subject?” before you pick.
Scenario quick-reference — 10 situations × A/B/C
The 10 moments you hit most days at work, with copy-paste-ready phrases at all three levels. Inside your company → B; outside → C is the default.
1. Greeting on arrival
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | おはよー | ohayō |
| B | おはようございます | ohayō gozaimasu |
| C | おはようございます (+ slight bow) | ohayō gozaimasu |
Note: The A-level greeting works with few people. Default to B even with peers — you can drop down later.
2. Saying thank you
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | ありがとう / サンキュ | arigatō / sankyu |
| B | ありがとうございます | arigatō gozaimasu |
| C | ご丁寧にありがとうございます | go-teinei ni arigatō gozaimasu |
Note: “Go-kurō-sama desu” is top-down only — supervisors say it to subordinates, never the reverse. Use “otsukare-sama desu” with seniors and peers.
3. A light apology (lateness, typo, etc.)
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | ごめん / ごめんね | gomen / gomen-ne |
| B | すみません | sumimasen |
| C | 申し訳ございません | mōshiwake gozaimasen |
Note: When the issue is serious, “sumimasen” alone is too light. Shift to C.
4. Making a request
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | これお願い | kore onegai |
| B | これお願いできますか？ | kore onegai dekimasu ka? |
| C | お手数ですが、こちらご対応いただけますでしょうか | otesū desu ga, kochira go-taiō itadakemasu deshō ka |
Note: “o-negai sasete itadakimasu” is unnecessary sasete itadaku. Plain “o-negai itashimasu” is enough.
5. Declining or saying no
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | ごめん、今日は無理 | gomen, kyō wa muri |
| B | すみません、今日は難しいです | sumimasen, kyō wa muzukashii desu |
| C | 恐れ入りますが、本日は都合がつかず…… | osore irimasu ga, honjitsu wa tsugō ga tsukazu… |
Note: Japanese rarely uses a flat “no.” “Muzukashii” (“difficult”) and “tsugō ga tsukazu” (“circumstances don’t align”) are the real ways to refuse.
6. Acknowledging or confirming
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | りょうかい / OK | ryōkai / OK |
| B | わかりました | wakarimashita |
| C | 承知いたしました / かしこまりました | shōchi itashimashita / kashikomarimashita |
Note: ⚠️ “Ryōkai shimashita” is fine inside your team but lands oddly with clients or executives. Switch to “shōchi itashimashita” for anything external — this is the single most common mistake non-natives get corrected on.
7. Asking a question
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | ここどういうこと？ | koko dō iu koto? |
| B | ここの意味、確認させてください | koko no imi, kakunin sasete kudasai |
| C | 恐れ入ります、こちらの点について確認させていただけますでしょうか | osore irimasu, kochira no ten ni tsuite kakunin sasete itadakemasu deshō ka |
Note: The “~sasete kudasai” pattern (asking permission to do something yourself) is the most reusable polite frame in the language. Use B in casual contexts, C in external email.
8. Stepping out of a meeting
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | ちょっと抜けるね | chotto nukeru ne |
| B | 少し席を外します | sukoshi seki wo hazushimasu |
| C | 少々席を外させていただきます | shōshō seki wo hazusasete itadakimasu |
Note: For a quick break in an internal meeting, B is plenty. With external stakeholders in the room, always C.
9. Ending a call or closing a meeting
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | じゃあ、またね | jā, mata ne |
| B | それでは、失礼します | soredewa, shitsurei shimasu |
| C | お忙しいところありがとうございました。失礼いたします | o-isogashii tokoro arigatō gozaimashita. shitsurei itashimasu |
Note: “Shitsurei shimasu” / “shitsurei itashimasu” is the closing line for phone calls and leaving a room. Hanging up without it sounds abrupt. Train yourself to end every call with this.
10. Email opener
| Level | Japanese | Romaji |
|---|---|---|
| A | (in chat to a close colleague) お疲れ〜 | otsukare〜 |
| B | お疲れ様です。〇〇です。 | otsukaresama desu. [Your Name] desu. |
| C | いつも大変お世話になっております。〇〇社の〇〇でございます。 | itsumo taihen osewa ni natte orimasu. [Company]-sha no [Your Name] de gozaimasu. |
Note: Internal email = B, external email = C is the workplace default. Using C inside your own company sounds standoffish, almost passive-aggressive.
20 set phrases and cushion words — the daily rotation
Verbs are the building blocks, but the phrases you paste 50 times a week are set expressions — fixed combinations that carry the politeness more than any single verb does. Two clusters dominate: kusshion-kotoba (クッション言葉, “cushion words”) that soften a request before you make it, and email closers you bolt onto sign-offs. Memorize these 20 and you’ve covered roughly 80% of business email surface area.
The table groups them by function. Every row is C-level unless noted — set phrases sit at the formal end of the register by design.
| # | Phrase | Romaji | Function | Use it for / common pitfall |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 恐れ入りますが | osore irimasu ga | Cushion (universal) | Drop in front of any request to instantly raise register. The single highest-ROI phrase on this page — if you learn one, learn this |
| 2 | お手数をおかけしますが | otesū wo okake shimasu ga | Cushion (creates work) | When your request creates real work for the other side. Don’t stack with osore irimasu ga — pick one |
| 3 | 申し訳ございませんが | mōshiwake gozaimasen ga | Cushion (declining) | Pre-softens a refusal or a “we can’t.” With executives or external contacts, sumimasen ga is too light — use this |
| 4 | お忙しいところ恐れ入りますが | o-isogashii tokoro osore irimasu ga | Cushion (interrupting) | Specifically when the recipient is visibly busy or senior. Don’t combine with otesū — overload |
| 5 | 早速ですが | sassoku desu ga | Cushion (skip the small talk) | “I’ll get right to it.” Useful after the opener when time matters. In a two-line email it sounds melodramatic |
| 6 | 恐縮ですが | kyōshuku desu ga | Cushion (milder apology) | A slightly softer alternative to osore irimasu ga. Often used when you’re declining indirectly or asking a small favor |
| 7 | 何卒よろしくお願いいたします | nanitozo yoroshiku onegai itashimasu | Closer (formal request) | The strongest standard sign-off. Reserve for important requests or first contact; yoroshiku onegai itashimasu alone covers routine |
| 8 | ご確認のほどよろしくお願いいたします | go-kakunin no hodo yoroshiku onegai itashimasu | Closer (review request) | After you’ve attached a document or sent a draft. Go-kakunin kudasai is acceptable internally; this version is safer external |
| 9 | ご査収のほどよろしくお願いいたします | go-sashū no hodo yoroshiku onegai itashimasu | Closer (formal attachment) | More formal than go-kakunin — used when the recipient should receive and verify a deliverable. Overusing it on casual attachments reads stiff |
| 10 | ご検討のほどよろしくお願いいたします | go-kentō no hodo yoroshiku onegai itashimasu | Closer (proposal) | When you’ve sent a proposal and want them to weigh it. Don’t use when you only need a yes/no — go-henji fits better |
| 11 | ご返信お待ちしております | go-henshin omachi shite orimasu | Closer (awaiting reply) | Polite “looking forward to your reply.” Don’t pair with a hard deadline — softens to nothing |
| 12 | 引き続きよろしくお願いいたします | hikitsuzuki yoroshiku onegai itashimasu | Closer (ongoing project) | Implies “this isn’t done; we’ll keep working together.” Wrong for the final email of a closed project |
| 13 | 取り急ぎご報告まで | toriisogi go-hōkoku made | Closer (brief FYI) | Signals “this is a quick update, not a full report.” Mistake: using on genuinely important reports — reads as low-effort |
| 14 | 何かご不明な点がございましたら | nani ka go-fumei na ten ga gozaimashitara | Offer (follow-up) | “If anything is unclear, please reach out.” A safe closer when explaining something complex. Don’t tack on before you’ve explained anything |
| 15 | 〜していただけますでしょうか | -shite itadakemasu deshō ka | Request frame | The most flexible C-level request pattern. Replaces “could you…?” Some natives debate the double-hedge with deshō ka — both versions are accepted in practice |
| 16 | 〜いただけますと幸いです | -itadakemasu to saiwai desu | Request frame (gentle) | “I’d be grateful if…” Softer than the deshō ka frame; use when the request is optional or low-priority |
| 17 | お時間をいただけますでしょうか | o-jikan wo itadakemasu deshō ka | Request (meeting) | Asking for a meeting slot. Don’t paste a specific time in the same sentence — kills the politeness. Send the time separately |
| 18 | 大変申し訳ございませんでした | taihen mōshiwake gozaimasen deshita | Apology (serious) | For real mistakes — missed deadline, wrong invoice, customer complaint. Overusing on minor things leaves no escalation room when something real breaks |
| 19 | お力添えいただきありがとうございます | o-chikara-zoe itadaki arigatō gozaimasu | Thanks (for help) | Acknowledging concrete help — a colleague who covered for you, a vendor who fast-tracked something. Generic “ありがとうございます” doesn’t carry the weight |
| 20 | ご足労いただきまして | go-sokurō itadakimashite | Thanks (for visiting) | “Thank you for coming all this way.” Used when someone made the trip to your office. Skipping this opener after an in-person visit reads as rude |
The cushion rule: one cushion per sentence, not three. Osore irimasu ga otesū wo okake shimasu ga o-isogashii tokoro osore irimasu ga… stacks into noise. Pick the one cushion that fits the situation — apology, bother, busy-ness, urgency — and use only that one.
Honorific prefixes お and ご — quick rules
The prefix system fits in three lines.
| Rule | Examples | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Native Japanese (kun’yomi) → o- | o-namae, o-jikan, o-tegami, o-negai | Exception: o-denwa (Sino-Japanese but takes “o-”) |
| Sino-Japanese (on’yomi) → go- | go-renraku, go-kakunin, go-annai, go-kyōji | Exception: o-ryōri, o-bentō (idiomatic “o-”) |
| Loanwords → typically no prefix | kōhī, mēru, dēta | ”o-bīru” exists in feminine or service-staff usage |
When in doubt, leave it off. “o-kentō” or “go-mēru” sound more wrong than no prefix at all. The right prefix matters less than not adding a wrong one.
4 keigo mistakes non-natives make most
Mistake 1: Using ryōkai shimashita with clients
“Ryōkai” carries a faint “acknowledged from above” tone for many native listeners. Safe inside your team; risky with anyone external. Swap for “shōchi itashimashita” or “kashikomarimashita.”
Mistake 2: Using go-kurō-sama desu with your boss
“Go-kurō-sama” is a top-to-bottom expression — supervisors say it to subordinates, not the reverse. Use “otsukare-sama desu” with seniors and peers.
Mistake 3: Overusing ~sasete itadaku
“~sasete itadaku” literally means “I humbly receive your permission to do X.” It’s designed for actions that genuinely require the other party’s approval. “Kakunin sasete itadakimasu” (letting me confirm) is correct. “O-okuri sasete itadakimasu” (letting me send this email) is widely criticized as excessive — plain “o-okuri shimasu” is fine.
Mistake 4: Pointing humble verbs at the listener
The verbs in the C-Kenjougo column are for lowering your own actions, not the listener’s. “Shachō wa oraremasu ka?” or “Shiryō o haiken kudasai” both make this mistake — humble verbs aimed outward. The fix is the same as for the verb table: ask “who’s the subject?” before picking a column.
Want the why behind these forms?
This cheat sheet is the lookup-table companion to the keigo guide. The guide explains the A/B/C framework, the uchi-soto axis, why “ryōkai shimashita” lands poorly with clients, and how to develop the instinct for which level fits which moment.
Other sibling articles in this cluster:
- Want fully worked dialogues? → keigo examples — interview, phone, email, and Slack scripts annotated end-to-end.
- Want to diagnose your own mistakes? → keigo mistakes guide — 8 errors ranked by severity, with a 30-second self-test.
- Want scenario phrases you can save as a PDF? → Japanese business phrases PDF page — 30 copy-paste rows.
- Want the 10 spoken phrases for your first week? → polite Japanese phrases for the office — chronological walk through one office day.
- Need a study plan to learn keigo from scratch? → Best way to learn keigo — a 90-day roadmap that uses this cheat sheet as its daily reference.
Frequently asked questions
What if a verb isn’t in the table — how do I conjugate it?
Most verbs follow two regular patterns. Sonkeigo (other’s action): o- / go- + verb stem + ni naru (e.g., o-yomi ni naru, go-riyō ni naru). Kenjougo (your own action): o- / go- + verb stem + suru / itasu (e.g., o-okuri suru, go-setsumei itasu). The verbs in the table are the irregular high-frequency ones. Anything else, apply the regular pattern.
Why is the C column split into honorific (sonkeigo) and humble (kenjougo)?
Because “C-formal” has two sub-modes. Sonkeigo elevates the listener; kenjougo lowers yourself. Same level of formality, different column depending on whose action you’re describing. “Go” is irassharu if your boss is going, ukagau / mairu if you are. Pick the column by asking “who’s the subject?” first.
When should I use the C-level scenario phrases?
The four reliable triggers: external contacts, executives, apologies, or formal writing. B handles everything inside your team and most cross-department messages. Using C with peers creates strange distance — they’ll feel held at arm’s length.
Do I need to memorize all the お / ご exceptions?
No. The base rule (kun’yomi → o-, on’yomi → go-) gets you ~90% right. The well-known exceptions (o-denwa, o-ryōri, o-bentō) settle in over time. When unsure, leave the prefix off — that’s safer than picking the wrong one.
Which cushion phrase (kusshion-kotoba) should I learn first?
Osore irimasu ga (恐れ入りますが). It works as the universal cushion before any request — in writing with peers, in any channel with seniors, and in email with clients. The other cushions in the set-phrases table (otesū wo okake shimasu ga, o-isogashii tokoro, mōshiwake gozaimasen ga) are situational; osore irimasu ga covers about 80% of business cases on its own.
How do I close a polite Japanese email?
For routine work: yoroshiku onegai itashimasu. For first contact or an important ask: nanitozo yoroshiku onegai itashimasu. If you’ve attached something to review: go-kakunin no hodo yoroshiku onegai itashimasu (or go-sashū for formal deliverables). For waiting on a reply: go-henshin omachi shite orimasu. The set-phrases table above maps each closer to its trigger.
Is this cheat sheet enough on its own? How is it different from the keigo guide?
This page is for looking up — the verb table and the scenario phrases. The keigo guide is for understanding — why A/B/C exists, how uchi-soto shapes register choice, and why specific phrases fail in specific contexts. Read the guide first to internalize the framework, then keep this cheat sheet open as your daily reference.